M. A. Abíọ́dún[1]
1. Introduction
Sociolinguists claim that to know a
language does not stop at knowing the grammatical rules that generate
infinite number of correct sentences. They contend that it extends to knowing
the social
constraints that make an utterance acceptable. Gumpers (1974: 251) observes
that the 'social etiquette of language choice is learned along with
grammatical rules and once internalised, it becomes a part of our linguistic equipment'. It follows from
the above that in a speech event, both the grammatical
and social restraints must be maintained in order to sustain effective communication.
Social restraints in speech events or sociolinguistic restraints may be
language specific because social behaviours
are often dictated by cultural background. A sociolinguistic constraint, in a particular cultural setting, maybe
irrelevant in another culture[2].
In Yoruba language, social restraints within a speech event include speaking
out of turn, use of derogatory vocabulary, disregard for relationship, use of threat, shouting on an addressee and
being avoidably silent. For the purpose of this study, the manifestation
of any of the social restraints mentioned above would be viewed as an insult in a linguistic interaction. It means then that an
insult in a linguistic interaction is
any form of speech act capable of causing a breakdown of linguistic harmony between interlocutors in a speech event.
Much as the rules of grammar and
social etiquette determine acceptability or non-acceptability of a speech act, studies in
sociolinguistics and ethnography of communication have revealed that context or
situation plays a role in what interlocutors make of a given speech act. According to Giglioli (1972: 13), it 'is essentially
through speech that men communicate ... yet, speech becomes understandable only in connection with social
interaction'.
In the present study, we present an
instance in the Yoruba language where context or situation neutralises offending or
insulting meaning that would normally be associated with speech event. Speech act
which would normally cause a breakdown in linguistic and social interactions
are found to be not only acceptable but are considered
useful in sustaining interest in the game of ayò.
2. Linguistic Interaction and Role-Relationship
In the introduction above, it is mentioned
that some instances of linguistic or speech act constitute insults in a linguistic
interaction. One must note, however, that whether a speech act constitutes an insult or not
depends on the status or relationship of addressee vis-a-vis the addresser. Trudgill (1974: 102)
remarks that a 'further important feature of the social context is the
"context" of the person spoken
to, and in particular, the role-relationship and relative status of the
participants in a discourse'. A clear
understanding of the role-relationship such as ruler-subject, clergyman-layman,
father-son,
employer-employee between linguistic interactants is very important in
determining whether a violation of social restraint in a speech event constitute an
insult or not. For instance, a case where a ruler speaks out of turn in a
linguistic interaction with his subject cannot be said to constitute an insult. Similarly, a situation where a father shouts on his son or
uses derogatory vocabulary in
addressing him does not constitute an insult. In contrast, it would be regarded
as bad manners for a subject to
speak out of turn in a linguistic interaction with a ruler just as it would amount to an insult for a son to shout on his
father or use a derogatory vocabulary in addressing him.
One may wonder how silence may
constitute an insult in a speech event considering the apparent fact that
silence implies that no speech act or event has occurred. One must, in this
regard, be
remanded of Basso's (1974: 67) quotation of an anonymous author which says that
'it is not that a man who is silent says nothing'. Banso (1974: 69) cites this example:
... if I choose to keep silent in the
Chambers of a Justice of the Supreme Court, my action is likely to be interpreted as
a sign of politeness or respect. On the other hand, if I refrain from speaking to an
established friend or colleague, I am apt to be accused of rudeness or
labouring a grudge.
3.1 Speech Event in the Game
of Ayò
Introduction
In the subsections that follow, we present the general setting in the
game of Ayò; we then illustrate speech events at the scene of the game.
3.2 The Setting in the Game of Ayò
Ayò is a traditional game that is
still very popular today. It is strictly a game of entertainment and
relaxation that is normally played after a day's job. As a game of relaxation,
it does
not attract monetary reward.
Two opponents normally engage in the
game at a time with spectators watching. There is no constraint of age or
sex in the game. Anyone who is skilled is free to play it. Like any other game,
Ayò
requires skills, particularly, a good knowledge of number[3].
However, of the various skills, the most relevant and most important to this
study is the ability to deliver verbal assault with pungency. By verbal assault,
we mean using speech in an unpleasant manner to cause emotional disturbance and
confusion for an opponent so that he will make mistakes. Verbal assault has a
dual function, apart from its being used as a winning strategy, it is also meant to
entertain spectators as they invariably jeer heartily in response to well delivered
verbal assaults.
Although opponents are free to trade
insults, spectators are forbidden from trading insults with a player. A
spectator who insults a player is certain to incur the justifiable wrath of the
insulted player.
In fact, a spectator who engages in verbal assault with a player risks being
accused of assisting one player against the other.
From the presentation above, it is
clear that, in the game of Ayò, linguistic interaction or actual speech act
must occur before one can talk of violation of linguistic and social
restraints. It follows, therefore, that silence is ruled out. Speaking out of
turn is also ruled out because a good strategist will strive to keep his opponent
out of talking. A player may lose his composure, and therefore make
mistakes if he allows the opponent to launch a derogatory verbal assault. One
is left with
the use of derogatory vocabulary, use of threat, disregard for role
relationship, and shouting on opponents.
3.3 Illustrations of Speech Events
Below are illustrations from written
literary texts and from recorded oral
speech at the scene of the game of Ayò.
3.3 Illustrations of Speech Events
Below are
illustrations from written literary texts and from recorded oral speech at the
scene of the game of Ayò.
Illustration One: Ta nisó
o-jàre, òpè. Òpè lásánlàsàn. Èyí tí ẹ ṣe tí ọba fig ba ọ̀rẹ́ rẹ lóbìnrin.
Bí o kò sọ́rá, nígbà tí n bá pa ẹ́ tán, oníṣẹ́ ọba ni ìwọ náà ó bá nílé pé
kábíèsí ti gbẹ́sẹ̀ lé ìyàwó àfẹ́sọ́nà tiẹ̀ náà. (Yemitan 1980: 32). (Play on
please, unskilled player. A player who is not skilled at all. No wonder the
king took your friend’s wife. By the time I am through with you, the king has
also ‘confiscated’ your fiancée.
Illustration two:
Olubu
O ò ha tayò, Májẹ́ógbé… (Why
don’t you play, Májẹ́ógbé…)
Akin
Hẹ́ẹ̀ o ò rí, ó ń sùn, o sùn, o
ò ha ta, (Poor you, look at him, he is dozing, you better play)
Hẹ̀ẹ̀ o ò rí èyí ti1 ó kó, àgb`ẹ
jùàbà. (Poor you, look at what he wants to pay, a cheap farmer).
Adegoolu
Mo kọ́ta, mo kópè o. (I greet the
skilled and the unskilled).
Akin
Eléyìí ò lè fọhùn. (This
one should not talk).
Olubu
Ọ̀ta ń jẹ́ o jàre (Don’t mind
him, the skilled is answering you).
Akin
Kò tán! O ò rọ́ta, o r’Adégoólú…
(Imagine the skilled player, imagine Adégoólú…)
Olubu
Ìwọ l’Adégoólù! Ìwọ ni nwọ́n ló
ò jọba… (You are Adégoólú! You are the one slated for kingship…)
Akin:
Ẹ ò ha ṣè kan, Adégoólú méjì…
káì! Kò tán! Hà! Ẹ̀yin Adégoólú gọ̀ sá o! (Hurry up, two Adégoólú’s… Kai!
Imagine, Ha! You Adégoólú’s are simply stupid…) Fálétí 1972: 12-13)
Illustration three:
Player 1
Ará Ọ̀fà yìí, o tún ti dé! (This
Ọ̀fà man, you are here again!)
Player 2
Mo ti dé sí ọ lọ́rùn. (I have
come to teach you a lesson)
Player 1
Ẹ́ẹ̀ gbúròó òpè, ìyàwó ẹ á tún
mọ̀ ẹ́ ti. (Hear the unskilled player! Your wife will not recognize you again
today).
Player 2
Tayò jọ̀ọ́, Jóónà, àyò ò tíì bẹ̀rẹ̀,
o tí ńsùn! (Please play, Jonah, the game is just starting and you are already
dozing)
Player 1
Ìyà kì í dùn ẹ́, ará Mọ́níyà.
(you are never tired of taking punishment, the man from Mọ́níyà).
Player 2
Ṣáà tayò kí n tóg bé ̣ lójú,
àbúrò Fìdíhẹẹ́. (Play on or else I slap you, brother of Interim).
Player I
Ó dáa, mo ta. (That’s alright, I
have played).
Player 2
Ẹ wo ohun ti1 Sùbéérù
ta! Mo ti sọ pé o ò mọ iye owó. (Imagine what Sùbéérù has
played ! I had said it before that you cannot count money correctly).
Player 1
Èmi náà mọ̀, ìran ẹ̀dá kì í kawó.
Sùgbọ́n tètè ránṣẹ́ síyàwó ẹ torí o ò ní mọ̀nà ilé bí mo bá pa ẹ́ tán. (I
know daft people don’t count money. But you should send for your wife because
you will be too dazed to find your way home when I am thorugh with you).
Player 2
Tayò, òpe, Sùbéérù lásánlàsàn. Irun
imú lo rò pé wọ́n fi ń tayò,
ó kó irun sẹ́nu bí ológbò.. (Play, an amateur, a common Sùbéérú. You think a
whisker is an asset in this game, with your bushy mouthstache that resembles
that of the cat).
Player 1
Ọ̀yọ́ nìyá ẹ ti gbóyún ẹ wá, ẹ
ẹ̀ rí i, ẹnu ẹ̀ dùn burúkú… (His mother conceived him by default through an Ọ̀yọ́
man, that is why he is skilled in taunting…)
3.4 General Review
Looking at the illustrations above,
one notes that insults are traded at will. For instance, names that would make
the opponent look ridiculous are invariably invented and use at will (to describe the
opponent). Such names normally cause the spectators to jeer and laugh thereby
causing discomfiture
for the target of the names. Note the following names in the illustrations:
Ope, Májẹ́ógbé,
Adégoólú, Jóónà, Sùbéérù and Fìdíhẹẹ́.
Apart from the names, derogatory
remarks are also made at will. The information contained in illustration one
is meant to embarrass the addressee, i.e. the opponent, the last lines in both
illustrations two and three are highly derogatory and insulting, i.e. in
illustration two, Akin says "Ẹ̀yin Adégoólú gọ̀ sá o!' (You Adégoólús are
simply stupid!) and in illustration three, Player 1 says . 'Ọ̀yọ́ nìyá ẹ ti
gbóyín ẹ wá .... '(His mother conceived him by default through an Oyo man
....).
The use of threat and the act of shouting on opponents are
also noticeable in the illustrations.
However, these two phenomena are better appreciated at the scene of the game. Illustration three presented above was recorded
at the scene of the game. Player 2, feigning seriousness, kept shouting and threatening Player 1. He accompanied the
threat with the following words:
'Sáà tayò kí n tó gbá ẹ lójú ..." (Plaay or else I slap you ...). He also
raised his hand as if to slap player[4].
Both the actions (the shout and the raising of hand as if to slap) and the
speech were meant to embarrass the
opponent, thus, he could make mistakes.
Talking of disregard for
role-relationship, it is noted that the dichotomy of superior-subordinate
relationship does not arise at the scene of Ayò game. Anyone who chooses
to play is regarded as òpè (an unskilled player) by the opponent and the
strategy is to taunt the opponent with insults in order to intimidate and embarrass
him. Thus, if a clergyman chooses to play Ayò with a layman (a member of
his church), the clergyman would not enjoy the language of respect and reverence normally
accorded clergyman in the course of their normal[5]
duties. In the same vein, if a father chooses to play with his son, or an employer
decides to play with his employee, the use of language, as far as the game lasts,
will not reflect the respect that normally goes with the father-son or employer-employee
relationship.
It follows from the illustrations and
the discussion in the last section that insults, i.e. speech acts that are capable
of causing a breakdown in linguistic interaction are treated as jokes within the
context of the game of Ayò. No matter the level of verbal assaults, a player
has to take solace in the Yoruba popular saying, 'eré la ń fi ọmọ Ayò se' (Ayò
is but a game). The import of the saying is that Ayò is only a game of relaxation. It
is for entertainment. Thus, anything said or done in the course of the game should
be taken as a joke. There should be no grudge or ill-feelings.
4. Conclusion
This study has shed some light on the
use of Yoruba language within a given context. As reported in many
other languages, (Giglioli 1972), context or situation also plays a prominent
role in the
acceptability or non-acceptability of utterances in Yoruba language. Thus, as
shown in this study, violation of sociolinguistic restraints, which, in normal
everyday usage of the language could be frowned at, is found to be quite acceptable in
the context of the game of Ayò.
Bibliography
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[1] This
paper was published as Abiodun, M.A. (1989), ‘Insults as Jokes: A Study of
Language Use in the Context of the Game of Ayò’, Journal of Nigerian Languages and Literatures (edited by L.O.
Adewole) 6: 39-43.
[2] While the use of
honorific pronoun is a major feature of Yorùbá language (Abiodun 1992), it has not been reported to
be a feature of other Nigerian languages.
[4] Actual slapping, or
more appropriately, any form of physical assault is not allowed in the game.
[5] This possibility
explains why highly placed persons such as rulers, kings, clergymen/priests,
etc. do
not play Ayò in the open.
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